(一)

在中國大陸上，一般認為，大約在一百萬年以前舊石器時代的人類已經生息繁衍（元謀原人有人鑒定為一百七十萬年以前的原人，有人認為只有九十萬年左右）。

一九五四年在山西省發現的距今十萬年左右的丁村人，已經使用一種稱之為「飛石索」的狩獵工具，這種工具可能就是後來演變為「石塤」的樂器。這種石塤大體上有三種類型：梨形的、筒形的和魚形的。後來發現有用獸骨做成筒形的骨哨，最初發現的骨哨是河姆渡文化　的遺址，但是這些骨哨是樂器或是狩獵工具還不能確定。一九七九年在河南舞陽縣賈湖的新石器時代遺址，出土了十幾隻比河姆渡骨哨更為完善的樂器——賈湖骨笛。這種骨笛已經和文獻上有記載的箎基本一致。這個骨笛除吹孔外已經有七個音孔，而且每個音孔都有明顯的開孔的橫線，證明在製作時經過了一定的計算，特別是第七個音孔之上還鑿了一小孔，大約是為校正第七音孔所發的音而開鑿的。這個骨笛是殉葬品，在一個墓穴內共有兩隻，一隻破裂，一隻完好，考古學家認為，這是賈湖一期文化遺存，根據碳十四年代測定資料，賈湖一期文化距今已有七千九百二十年，前後差誤修正為一百五十年（樹輪校正為距今七千七百三十七年，前後差誤修正為一百二十八年）。經測音鑒定：筒音為^＃F⁵＋44，第七音孔為A⁵＋8，第六音孔為B⁵－25，第五音孔為C⁶＋24，第四音孔為D⁶＋16，第三音孔為E⁶＋16，第二音孔為G⁶－40，第一音孔為^＃A⁶－42（骨笛全長二十二點二公分）。據此，這個骨笛已經可以奏出中國古代傳統的下徵調五聲和七聲音階，也可奏出清商六聲音階。這雖然只是一個孤例，但也可以證明在仰韶文化之前還存在著一種古文化。這個文化分佈於淮河中下游及其支流，最北達到河南的東南部。最南達到安徽的中部，歷史學家考證，這裏是中國古代東夷集團的勢力範圍。文獻記載這是中國古傳說中太昊氏活動的地方（傳說中的太昊氏的墳墓稱之為太昊陵，就在這個地區的今河南省淮陽縣）。考古學家認為，賈湖文化和大汶口文化有著密切關係，大汶口文化距今約六千年，但考古學家認為大汶口文化屬於少昊氏部族，如果歷史學家所說的太昊、少昊為先後之分，這種骨笛先於大汶口文化約二千年，便更是可信的了。

這個約八千年前的古遺存中，已經發現有殉葬的靈龜，龜甲上面還刻有幾個文字，其中可以辨認的已經和殷代的甲骨文大致相同。可見當時已有文字，這有待於今後更多的考古發現才能進一步討論。

新石器時代的古遺存中，還有大量的陶塤。一種假定認為陶塤是從石塤發展而成的。目前考古發現的陶塤有距今六千七百年左右的半坡一音孔陶塤，測音為F²和^bA²，構成一個小三度音程。稍後的山西二音孔陶塤和鄭州一音孔陶塤，都有一個小三度音程。這可能說明小三度音程或者是五聲音階構成上的特徵所在，也可能是和中國的語言發音有某種聯繫。這還有待於更多地考古發現，才能得出結論。

陶塤這種樂器從一音孔逐漸發展到五音孔。甘肅的陶塤已經能發出四個樂音，河南輝縣五音孔陶塤，特別是河南安陽小屯五音孔陶塤已經能吹出十二個樂音，完全可以構成一個完整的七聲音階。

但是，對於上述的音階形成，無論在年代判定上還是音階構成上，當代的音樂學家都還存在不同的意見。

過去一般把有文字記載的歷史才稱之為信史，但漢代歷史學家司馬遷所記載的殷商史，已為後來發現的甲骨文證明為信史。中國古史上的所謂夏、商、周三代的夏文化，最近考古學已有初步的發現，河南省有關部門還正在廣泛地開展著這一工作，上述的骨笛就是重要的發現之一。如果按年代計算，賈湖文化不僅在夏代之前，甚至在傳說中的五帝之前。初步結論只能是，中國大陸的音樂文化還在新石器時代晚期就已經有相當高度的發展了。

(二)

中國大陸上，一般稱之為上古埋藏居住的部族很多，但是還在先秦時代，大陸上各部族就進行了各種形式的融合和交流。以現存兄弟民族最多的雲南省為例（中國共有五十多個兄弟民族，雲南省就有二十五個），在古代稱之為氐羌的便分佈在今雲南省一帶。古代歷史學家，從司馬遷到楊雄都說夏代的禹帝是羌人。文獻記載羌人參加過周代（公元前十一世紀至七七一年）的多次戰爭。周朝時雲南的兄弟民族便開始向中原王朝朝貢，這種朝貢一直延續到明清。戰國時代（公元前四七五至二二一年）雲南曾經從屬於蜀國和楚國。公元前二二一年秦王朝統一了中國大陸，並在雲南設置了官吏，秦漢之際中原和雲南的交通便很頻繁了。雲南又被稱之為奭人的是最早被漢化的土著居民。西漢時（公元前二○六至公元八年）設益州郡統治雲南一帶。而歷史上雲南又和藏人有過很多的交往，藏人時而聯合漢人，時而又聯合奭人。類似的史實多不勝數，可見現在的中華人民共和國一方面說是一個多民族的國家；另一方面中華民族又是一個從遠古以來就相互融合和交往的多民族的集合體。

古代中國的歷史傳說，參雜了許多神話。有的是把部族的首領神化了，這和古人的圖騰崇拜相一致，所以傳說中上古音樂也大多含有圖騰崇拜的意義。如傳說中的黃帝以雲為圖騰，所以他的音樂稱為「雲門」，正像他的軍隊稱為「雲師」一樣。

從圖騰音樂發展為典禮音樂，就成了後來的所謂的雅樂，從三代的周一直保存到最後的王朝清。當然每個朝代的更迭，一方面保存了前代的部分雅樂，另一方面新王朝也自己制禮作樂。這種典禮音樂，最初作為維繫社會群體的文化活動，體現了社會群體的文化意識（祖先崇拜便是這種社會意識之一），到了農耕社會，祭天地又成為重要的國家典禮。

最早的國家典禮活動，是被稱之為「韶樂」的音樂，傳說是舜帝時代的樂章，可能因為音樂有九段，所以又稱為「九招」或「九韶」。根據文獻記載，這種音樂是集合詩歌、舞蹈和器樂三者為一的形式。據說韶樂用琴瑟伴奏來歌唱，用以招喚祖先的靈魂。以後用鼗鼓和木製的柷、敔來開始和結束音樂，用笙管一類的樂器參雜其間，伴以化裝為鳥獸的舞者來跳舞，最後，還有化裝為鳳凰的舞者出現。這可以證明，一方面以龍鳳為圖騰的部族群落和以其他鳥獸為圖騰的部族，已經形成了早期的文化認同，表示了許多部落的聯盟與合流。到了農耕社會，這種樂舞活動便有了每年歲末的「臘祭」。其歌詞說：「土地平整了，洪水都流到大溝裏去，蟲災不再發生，草木豐茂」。孔子把韶樂和「武」樂（殺伐之聲）作了對比，認為「武」樂「盡美矣，未盡善也」，而韶樂則「盡善盡美」。這種善大於美的美學思想，一直為幾千年來的儒家所共識。另一方面，這種「臘祭」的音樂正是中華民族作為世界最早的農耕民族之一對於農耕豐收的最早的文化藝術意識的形成。

另外一個記載更為詳盡，傳說中的「葛天氏之樂」共分八段，其中第一段是祝願人民子孫繁衍，第二段是表現圖騰崇拜，第三、四段是表現勤於農耕，第五段和第七段是敬天地，第六段是敬帝功，最後一段是各種鳥獸的舞蹈。傳說中的咸池樂，後來的文獻記載說是堯帝根據黃帝的樂舞改編的。「咸池」是一個星名，古人認為此星主管農耕，咸池星明亮則田禾豐收，咸池星不明則有災變，所以這種舞樂在春天舉行，以祈求五穀豐登。此外，還有描寫戰爭的舞樂，如與傳說中黃帝、炎帝和蚩尤戰爭有關的舞樂，周滅商（公元前一○二七年）建立了誇耀戰功的「大武」之樂。還有祝願人類繁衍的樂舞，後來文獻記載中稱為祭祀「高禖」的「萬舞洋洋」，也是在早春季節進行的。傳說這時男女可以自由結合（這種風俗至今在中國少數民族中還有殘留）。由此可見從圖騰崇拜到祈求民族繁衍，進而祈求狩獵、農耕豐收以求溫飽的文化意識，在上古時期的諸種共生文化意識的並存現象。

後代把上述各種舞樂歸納為文舞和武舞兩類，這種分類一直延續許多朝代。

上述上古樂舞形象化的古遺存，僅見於青海孫家寨出土的彩繪陶盆。這是一九七三年出土的，陶盆口徑二十九公分，腹徑二十八公分，底徑十公分，高十四公分，上面有舞蹈人形畫面三組，五人一組，每人都拖著一條尾巴，考古學家認為是五千年前的遺存。這可能是上古樂舞所謂「百獸率舞」的形象。

上古時代的鼓，最早的形制可能是木鼓。現在廣西的兄弟民族還保存有這種鼓，在獨木上挖一個深槽，敲擊發聲。文化學家診斷，這種樂器可能還含有女性生殖器崇拜的意義。

另外一種鼓是陶鼓，山西省有這種鼓出土，但這件樂器是幾十年前發掘出來的，未經考古學家鑒定。同類的陶鼓，是山東大汶口文化遺存，時限測定為六千年左右，其中一件白陶器，在器口的近處，殘存八十四塊鱷魚的鱗片，推測這是用鱷魚皮製作的陶鼓。

人類進入銅器時代後，中國人民開始用青銅製作樂器，主要是青銅製作的鐘。河南溫縣出土的三件一組的編鐘，這三個鐘的測音是：D、E、G。故宮博物院所藏的殷代編鐘和上述鐘測音不同，殷代編鐘的測音是^bD、微降F和^bA。

震驚世界的考古發現是湖北隋縣一九七八年發掘出土的青銅樂器曾侯乙墓編鐘，全套編鐘共六十五件，總音域跨五個八度，測音基本上相同於西方現代的C大調，中心音域十二律齊備，可以在三個八度內構成完整的半音階。特別是鐘上都有錯金銘文，記載了當時楚、齊、晉、周、申和增國的各種律名、階名、變化音名的對照，不僅說明了中國古代十二律體系的存在，而且證明早在春秋時代（公元前七七○至四七六年）中原各國還有了中國古代十二律的異名，並且證明了早在二千四百多年以前，對於近代西洋樂理中大、小、增、減各種音程和八度音的概念，已經有了各自民族獨特的表述方式。

周代的樂器已經有七十種左右，並有了所謂八音分類法，根據樂器的質地的不同，分別稱之為金、石、土、革、絲、木、匏和竹。上述曾侯乙墓中樂器中便有絲類的琴和瑟，革類的鼓，竹類的箎和排簫，匏類的笙，石類的編磬。這種八音樂器，一直到清代還在使用。

過去一般把上述的雅樂稱為廟堂樂舞，不僅在宮廷的典禮中使用，而且在士人祭孔時也在使用。最新的發現還證明，這種典禮音樂在民間也同樣使用，山西省最近發現稱之為「三晉古賽」的十四種抄本，最早的是明嘉靖元年（公元一五二二年）的抄本，最晚的是民國十四年（公元一九二五年）的抄本，這種民間迎神賽會的活動，實際上是中古時代宮廷音樂流傳到民間的遺存。在上述的抄本中說：「夫大禮者，威儀也。」古代文獻上說：「禮祭三百，威儀三千。」可見這種民間活動是有很長久的歷史的。而這種活動的內容：一是祭神，二是慶豐，三是娛人。可惜的是，這些抄本中只記載了許多舞蹈的名稱和許多的古樂的名稱，以及戲曲的名稱，文中所謂「四十大曲，十七宮調」，又說「男記大曲四十，女記小令三千」，雖和文獻記載相符，但都沒有留下樂譜，而在這種賽會中擔任過樂工和舞工的人，都已八、九十歲了。雖在文獻記載中可以證明，這種民俗活動和隋、唐、宋的宮廷音樂有著直接的關係。這種祭神祈福樂舞活動，在宗教音樂中還可以找到殘留的痕跡。

一般說，把先秦時代可以稱之為中國音樂的上古時期，其代表性的音樂為舞樂（氏族的或宮廷的祭典音樂和民間的祭祀和風俗音樂）。秦、漢、魏、晉、南北朝、隋、唐可稱之為中國音樂的中古時期，其代表性的音樂為歌舞（以唐代的燕樂為典型，宮廷的宴舞音樂和民間的飲宴音樂）。宋、元、明、清時期為中國音樂的近古時期，其代表性的音樂為戲曲（音樂戲劇、有故事性的歌舞、敍事性的說唱音樂和抒情性的吟唱音樂的總稱）。

從漢代起就有一種稱之為鼓吹的音樂，通稱它為「馬上樂」（軍樂）。這種早期的鼓吹音樂畢竟無從考查了，但是在山西的聖母廟壁畫中還可以看到這種音樂演奏的形象。經歷史學家考據，這幅壁畫繪製於明代（公元一五四九年）。

(三)

中古時期的唐代燕樂（宮廷飲宴的音樂），這種音樂形成的契機是中原漢民族和西北部西域民族在音樂上的融合，這種融合，時代向上可以追溯到南北朝和隋，地域上向西可以追溯到中亞各國。隋代的七部樂和九部樂，不僅包括中國西域各地的音樂，還包括了印度音樂、高麗音樂，以及中亞的安國（今蘇聯烏茲別克共和國一帶）音樂。唐代因隋舊制，立九部樂和十部樂，還包括了扶南（今柬埔寨）音樂，從上述各國各族音樂的交流，形成了唐代燕樂大曲，這是一種綜合器樂，歌唱和舞蹈的大型歌舞音樂。上承漢魏的相和、清商大曲，並把上古的文舞和武舞改稱軟舞和健舞。軟舞中有綠腰（後稱六么）、烏夜啼等。健舞有劍器、胡旋和柘枝等。這種大曲中最著名的是霓裳羽衣曲，據說這是「西涼創作，明皇潤色」。但這種傳說不如說是這種音樂具有濃厚的西域佛教音樂的成份，所以詩人杜牧才說：「月聞仙曲調，霓作舞衣裳」。這種燕樂大曲，在著名的五代繪畫《韓熙載夜宴圖》中有形象的描繪。而且由於佛教的東傳，在石窟藝術和雕刻藝術作品中，都可以見到當時的樂器形象。

福建泉州的開元寺，始建於唐垂拱二年（公元六八六年），雖然這個建築曾經多次重修，但文獻證明毀於元代（公元一三五七年）的大殿，就有現存的木雕飛天。建築學家考證，元代時即有的現存樂伎雕刻，明代重修或為原作複製，或為原作重修。這些木雕飛天手持的樂器有唐代的琵琶、拍板、尺八和唐宋時代的二弦（也就是見之於宋代文獻的奚琴），但已增有元代的胡琴。

河南開封的繁塔，根據出土的殘石刻證明可能重修於太平興國二年（公元九七七年），但民間傳說北宋太祖建國後（公元九六○年後）因繁塔高於皇宮（這可與太平興國二年的殘碑互證），故將繁塔上部拆除，但原石刻仍然完整保存。石刻上的樂器有鼓、鼗鼓、鈸、法鑼、琵琶、管、笛、排簫、拍板等。

佛教傳入中國後，從北魏到隋、唐各地開鑿了許多石窟，除了著名的龍門石窟、敦煌石窟外，山西雲崗石窟的第十二窟，被稱為音樂窟，有許多樂伎的石刻。這個石窟從北魏和平六年（公元四六八年）開始到太和十六年（公元四九二年）修建，這些樂伎所持的樂器和我們已經瞭解的唐代樂器基本相同。

唐代之後的五代，前蜀皇帝王建（公元八四七至九一八年）的陵墓底座有著名的樂伎石刻二十四件，石刻上的樂器基本上也和唐代的樂器相同，其中特別值得注意的有臥箜篌和吹葉。

此外，王建墓石刻中正面有兩個舞伎雕像，據歷史學家考證，這兩個舞伎的舞姿是唐代著名的霓裳羽衣舞（從唐代白居易、元稹等人的詩歌中可以瞭解，這個舞蹈有獨舞、對舞和群舞等多種形式，而且還流傳到民間），前蜀王建僅晚於唐代幾十年，這個著名的燕樂大曲，流傳於四川小王朝的宮廷中，是完全可能也可信的。

(四)

宋、元、明、清時期，首先興起的曲子詞，是一種新型的藝術歌曲。這由於自北魏、北周以來，中國西域地區音樂和中亞、印度、緬甸的音樂流傳於中原，宣揚佛教教義的音樂也很盛行，所以從隋代起便興起了曲詞這種藝術歌曲。宋代著名的音樂文獻《碧雞漫志》中說「古歌變為古樂府，古樂府變為曲子」。

這種曲子詞，根據曲詞的名稱來看，大體上包括傳統古曲、外來樂曲、民間歌曲和自度新曲。宋代的姜夔（白石道人）創作的藝術歌曲，便是這種音樂的代表作。

同時，由漢代的百戲發展而為宋代的雜劇，再到金、元的院本，一直到南宋的南戲，中國的戲曲音樂完全趨於成熟。

宋代的商品經濟有所發展，大城市如東京（今河南開封）、臨安（今浙江杭州）等地，市民音樂活動廣泛發展。曲藝中的說書，更在大城市的勾欄瓦舍中成為人民的重要娛樂活動。當然，這種說書形式在漢代已經出現，著名的雕塑——東漢的擊鼓說書俑，可為證明。

戲曲藝術在元代已完全成熟，扮演者的旦、淨、末已經具有後世的所謂生、旦、淨、末四大行當的雛形。從著名的元代戲曲壁畫「中都秀在此作場」，可以看到生、旦、淨、丑的行當，還可以看到用橫笛伴奏的樂師。

從宋、元南戲發展到明傳奇，以及被稱為亂彈的各種地方戲曲，如「秦腔、吹腔、二簧調、梆子腔……」，最後在清代形成了以西皮、二黃為主體的主要代表劇種——京戲。京戲和數以百計的地方戲，構成了近代戲曲藝術的繁榮局面。

(五)

概括地說，中國音樂的上古時代可稱之為樂舞時代，中古時期的音樂可稱之為歌舞時代，近古時期的音樂可稱之為戲曲時代。但是，上述各種音樂又不能截然用時代來劃分。上古的雅樂在歷代王朝中都延續著，中古的歌舞音樂也和上古的樂舞特別是流傳於民間的樂舞有著承傳的關係，而近古的戲曲音樂和中古的歌舞音樂相聯繫，一直到近代的山西還在迎神賽會中密切結合。上古時期的琴音樂，在晉代一直到明清，都在不斷地發展之中。現代的琵琶音樂，雖然在隋唐時期就有西來的琵琶和土生的阮咸並存，但在漫長的歷史時期中彈奏的方式從橫抱發展為直抱，從用撥子彈奏發展到用手指彈奏，已經完全和西來的五弦琵琶以及橫抱琵琶大異其趣了。一方面中國西域地區和中亞的音樂，都對中國音樂的發展產生過巨大的影響，同時，中國音樂也對日本、朝鮮、印支半島發生過重要的影響，因此，一部中國音樂史在某種意義上也可說是一部亞洲音樂史。日本的正倉院至今保存著精美的中國中古時期的樂器，而且至今還世代傳承地被演奏。朝鮮半島在音樂理論上至今還保有中國音樂理論的影響。

(六)

中華民族各族間的融合和文化交流，在上古時期便開始了，文獻證明，華族音樂自古就有「四方之樂」和南北各族的地域性的「八風之樂」。

傳說中的顓頊氏是黃帝之孫，顓頊氏出生於今巴蜀之地的「若水」（今四川省內），但他又「實處空桑」，即活動於中原一帶，在當時他已是許多部族的首領之一。文獻證明，南方的楚文化，其部族也自稱「高陽之苗裔」，文獻中顓頊之樂，是中原及南方各族音樂的結合，並以「承雲」為祭上帝之樂，「雲」便是黃帝的圖騰，而且已明確提到「龍」或「雷神」，山西夏文化遺址中發現的鼓腔內殘存有鱷魚鱗片和山東出土的陶器之側有八十多片鱷魚鱗片可互為佐證，說明當時以「龍」（可能是現在揚子鱷的祖先的神化物）為圖騰已有很久遠的傳統。古文獻中說，雷神「龍身而人頭，鼓其腹則雷也」，因而，以其皮為鼓皮，可為順理成章。稍後的銅鼓便是這種鼉鼓（鱷魚皮鼓）的仿製品，今南中國出土的銅鼓很多。

中國音樂發展中，有南樂為北樂所用，也有北樂為南樂同化，這正是中國各部族音樂文化的共生狀態的表現。南方的楚文化對北方的漢文化有強烈的影響，一直到漢代皇帝的「房中樂」還用「楚聲」。

魏、晉、南北朝是政治上的南北對峙，但音樂上的「清商樂」中便有「楚調」，實際上「清商樂」是漢代的「相和」向南傳播，漢代又將「南音」與之共列為「相和五調伎」，所以，音樂的自北而南，又自南而北，相互融合，形成了新的音樂。

北方的鼓吹樂，本是北方鮮卑族的音樂，漢代盛行於中原，但南朝的梁代，南方的鼓吹樂便吸收了北方的鼓吹樂，南朝的陳代宮廷中，便演奏北方簫鼓，稱之為「代北」。這都說明了南北音樂的合流。

隋唐時期，一方面是中原和西域以至中亞音樂的融合，另一方面唐代以南朝梁、陳舊樂並雜以吳、楚之音及北朝周、齊胡戍之音而作大唐雅樂，這就是說，南北音樂和華夷音樂（南北和中外音樂）融合為一個「合體」了。

到了近古時代的戲曲音樂，更是一個南北音樂文化合流的過程。明代戲曲音樂家王驥德在《曲律》一書中，一開始便說：「曲之有南北，非始今日也」。以後從歌詞、地域和音樂風格說明南、北曲的差異，但總結之為「同一師承」。從歷史上看，唐代的參軍戲和歌舞戲特別是寺廟戲場（如近代山西還保存的迎神賽會）便已經具有戲曲的雛形。同時，當時已有南北的交流，今四川、浙東也已有早期戲曲的流行和北傳，而宋代以後，北宋襍劇一方面從中原（今河南）北流到元大都（今北京），宋襍劇成為金院本（元襍劇的先驅）。另一方面向南流傳，形成了「南戲」。北曲是漢、蒙古、女真文化合流的產物，南曲則是中原音樂與東南沿海各省文化合流的結晶。所以南戲最早稱之為「溫州襍劇」和「永嘉襍劇」，仍存宋襍劇之名，其初為「宋人詞而益以里巷歌謠」，但北方人民大量南遷，宋代的民間瓦舍藝人也大量南下，其諸宮調、小唱、細樂、鼓板也傳入南方，歷史上，遠在晉代永嘉二年（公元三○八年）中原人便大量南遷福建，至今福建南部方言還保存著許多中原中古時期的音韻。今天仍存在的「南音」（又稱「南管」）音樂可為佐證。

戲曲音樂中的「南北合套」的存在，說明南、北音樂的合流過程。到明代，北曲的深雄和南曲的婉約形成了共生互補，集中體現在昆山腔之中，昆山腔第一個成功的劇目《浣紗記》中，還是男主角唱北曲，女主角唱南曲。到了清代的「亂彈」，其中「高腔」，「梆子腔」以及後來的「皮黃腔」，實際上不僅南北合流，而且又東西合流了。

總之，中國音樂自古至今，雖樂有南北，聲有東西，但流傳中既有北樂南傳，也有南樂北化；既有西樂東傳，又有西樂中化，這種音樂文化的相兼互融，形成了一個源遠流長，經久不衰的共生共榮的文化系統。歷史上的周秦文化、齊魯文化、楚文化、吳越文化、嶺南文化、滇文化……融合而成的漢文化，又和中國西部直到中亞地區的西域文化，形成一個共生互融，互補互成的數以千年計的音樂文化系統。

作者單位：
前中國文化部辦公廳主任、藝術局局長
前中央音樂學院院長
前中國國務院學位委員會藝術學科評議委員
前《音樂研究》主編
前中國國家教委藝術教育委員會主任
前中國音樂出版社社長
前中國音樂家協會副主席

An Outline of the history of Chinese music from the Chinese musical instruments found in archaeology sites (abstract)

Zhao Feng

It is generally believed that human species lived on the land of China in the Paleolithic Period about a million years ago. It was discovered in 1954 in Shanxi Province that the Dingcun Man (100,000 years before present) used a hunting tool called flying-stone-chain. The hunting tool probably developed into the musical instrument of stone xun. There are three types of stone xun: pear-shaped, tube-shaped and fish-shaped. The tube-shaped, animal bone whistles were found from archaeology sites of the Hemudu Culture. However it is not determined whether they are musical instruments or hunting tools. The Jiahu flute is a better instrument than the Hemudu bone whistles. There are seven holes and a mouth hole on the Jiahu bone flute. There are conspicuous lines to mark the opening locations of the holes. This may indicate that calculation had been made in making the instrument. There is a small hole beside the seventh hole. The small hole was probably put there to adjust the pitch of the seventh hole. The Jiahu bone flute was a sacrificial object. There are two flutes in one grave. The grave is a relic of the early Jiahu Culture (7737+-123 years before present by radio carbon date). The length of the bone flute is 22.2 cm. The tube pitch is tested as *F5 + 44, the seventh hole A’ + 8, the sixth hole B’-25, the fifth hole C° + 24, the fourth hole D° + 16, the third hole E° + 16, the second hole G®°-40, and the first hole * A6-42. I herefore the bone flute plays both the five or seven-notes scale of Xia Zhi and six-notes scale of Qing Shang of the ancient Chinese musical system. In the same grave where the bone flute was found, sacrificial tortoise shells were unearthed. There are characters carved on the tortoise shells. Some of the recognizable characters are similar to those of the Yin Dynasty. The Jiahu bone flute indicates that musical culture of China began to develop in the late Neolithic Age.

Pottery xuns (similar to ocarina) were unearthed from archaeology sites of the Neolithic Age. Pottery xun probably developed from stone xun. The Banpo one-hole pottery xun dates back to about 6,700 years before present. Its pitches are F’ and A’ flat which form a minor third interval. Both the Shanxi two-hole pottery xun and the Zhengzhou one-hole pottery xun have one minor third interval. The minor third interval may be a character of the Pentatonic scale, of may relate with the pronunciation of the Chinese language. Contemporary musicologists have different opinions on the dating and origin of the Pentatonic scale. More works are needed to solve this problem.

The one-hole pottery xun gradually developed into the five-hole pottery xun. The Gansu pottery xun produces four musical notes. The five=hole pottery xuns of Huixian and Anyangxiaotun, Henan Province, play 12 notes. The anyangxiaotun xun (Yin Dynasty) plays a complete 7-notes scale.

The ancient history of China is generally divided into two periods: the Ancient Times (2,100 B.C. -220 A.D.) and the Middle Age (220-960 A.D.) The historical records of ancient China are mixed with fairy tales and legends. From historical legends, music of the Ancient Times often signifies totem worship. For example, the legendary Huangdi worshiped clouds, and his music was called “the clouds”.

Ceremonial music, the Yayue, was developed from totem music of ancient tribes. The Yayue exists from the Zhou dynasty to Qing, the last dynasty in Chinese history. Each new dynasty kept a part of the Yayue from the preceding dynasty, and added rituals and music of their own. The ceremonial music reflects cultural ideologies. Ancestor worship is one of those ideologies. The earliest ceremonial activity was Shaoyue. The Shaoyue is a combination of poetry and dancing, accompanied with singing and instrumental music to call back the spirit of ancestors. According to historical documents, instruments qin, she, taogu, wooden chu, and yu were used in the ceremony of Shaoyue. Worship of heaven and earth became an important state ceremony in an agricultural society. The music of Laji is for the celebration of harvest, the earliest manifestation of the cultural and artistic consciousness of the Chinese nation which is one of the oldest agricultural nations in the world.

Confucian made a contrast between the Shaoyue and Wuyue (music of war). Confucian considered that the Wuyue is perfectly beautiful but not perfectly good. The aesthetic thought that goodness is more important than beauty has been shared by the Confucianists for more than two thousand years.

There were several parts in Getianshi, a legendary dance of the Ancient Times: wish for the increase of population, worhip of totems, farm work, respect of heaven and earth, tespect of emperor’ s merits, and dances of birds and animals. The music of Getianshi is the earliest record in history wich mentioned dance music. A painted pottery basin was unearthed in Sunjiazhai, Qinghai Province in 1973. There are three groups of dancers painted on the basin. Each group consists five dancers, and each dancer has a tail. The painting may be the image of the dance Baishoushuaiwu (the dance of hundred animals). The pottery basin is about five thousand years before present.

The earliest drums are probably made of wood. Wooden drums are still being used among the minorities of Guangxi today. The woden drum is very simple; a deep slot is made on a piece of wood which produces sound when it is struck. Sociologists believe that the wooden drum may indicate the worship of female genital genital organ.

Pottery drums were unearthed in Shanxi Province, but they were not fully studied yet. Pottery drums were found at archaeology sites of the Dawenkou Culture (about 6,000 years before present), Shandong Province. 84 pieces of crocodile scales were found near the opening of a white pottery pot. It was inferred that this is a crocodile skin covered pottery drum.

The major instruments made of bronze are bells. The pitches of three bells, which form a set of chime-bells unearthed in Wenxin, Henan Province, are C, E and G. The pitches of the Yin Dynasty chime-bells (collection of the Palace Museum, Beijing) are Dflat, F (slightly flat) and A flat.

The discovery of a set of bronze chime-bells from the Zenghouyi tomb (5″ centry B. C.) consists of 85 bells with a register of 5 octaves. The pitches are basically the same as the Occidental C scale. The chime-bells plays complete 12 tones in its middle register. Therefore the chimebells can make a complete chromatic scale within 3 octaves. There are gold-inlaid inscriptions on the bells. The inscriptions record the different names and scales of a tone for the Chu, Qi, Jin, Zhou, Shen, and Zeng Kindoms of the Spring and Autumn Period (771-403 B. C.). This proves the existence of an ancient Chinese 12 tone temperament system and its variation in different regions of the Central Plains of China. Therefore , as early as 5th century B.C., Chinese people mastered a musical system with concepts which are equivalent to the concepts of intervals (including major, minor, augmented, and diminished ) and octaves of the Occidental music.

During the Zhou Dynasty, there were about seventy musical instruments. The instruments were classified by their material as metal, stone, pottery, leather, string, wood, gourd, and bamboo. There were qin and she of the string, drum of the leather, chi and paixiao of the bamboo, sheng of the gourd, and serial qing of the stone types among the instruments unearthed in the Zenghouyi tomb. Those instruments and the classification were still used in the court of the Qing dynasty about two thousand years later.

Yayue, a temple dance music, was played in court ceremony and memorial ceremony for Confucian. The folk music of god-welcoming festivals of Shanxi Province was developed from the court music. 14 copies of recently discovered manuscripts date from 1522 to 1925. The manuscripts record the folk festivals of Shanxi Province. It is written in the manuscripts that there are three hundred pieces of court music, whereas there are three thousand pieces of ceremonial folk music. Although there are no musical scores in the manuscripts, the records do prove that the folk music of Shanxi Province relate with the court music of the Sui, Tang and Song Dynasties.

Guchui, known as music on horseback, was military music which may date back as early as the Han dynasty. The performance of Guchui can be seen on the mural paintings of the Jiyi Temple, Shanxi Province.

The Katyuan Temple at Quanzhou, Fujian Province was first built in 686A.D., and had been rebuilt many times. Documentary records show that the wood sculpture of the Flying Apsaras 1n its great hall have been existed since the Yuan Dynasty (1357). According to architectural investigation, the wood sculptures are duplication or restoration of the original work of the Yuan Dynasty. The Flying Apsaras are images of Yueyi (musicians). The instruments hold by the Yueji include pipa, paiban (clappers) and chiba (a wind instrument) of the Tang Dynasty, erxian (a two-string fiddle) of the Tand and Song Dynasties, and huqing (fiddle) of the Yuan Dynasty.

According to a stone tablet, the Fanta Tower at Kaifeng, Henan Province was built on 927 A.D. The top of the tower was removed around 960 A.D. because it was higher than the imperial palace. The original carving on the stone tablet includes drums, taogu, bo (symbals), faluo (gong), pipa, guan (wood wind), di (fiute), paixiao (pan-pipe), and paiban (clappers).

Grottoes of Buddhism temples were built from 5th to 10th centuries by the royal families of the North, Sui and Tang Dynasties. The 12th cave of Yungang Grottoes, Shanxi Province was built from 465 to 492 A.D. It is called the cave of music because there are many stone sculptures of Yueji (musician) in the cave. The musical instruments hold by the figures of Yueji are similar to those of the Tang Dynasty.

There are 24 stone sculptures of Yueji on a pedestal in the tomb of Emperor Wangjian (847-918 A.D., Early Shu Kingdom of the Five Dynasties ) The musical instruments on the stone sculptures are similar to those of the Tang Dynasty, including wokonghou (similar to harp) and chueyie (playing orange leaf as an instrument). There is a stone carving of two Yueyji on the front side of Wangyjian’s tomb. According to historical research, the dancing moement of the Yueji is the famous Nishangyuyiwu of the Tang Dynasty. From the poems of Tang Dynasty, we know that the Nishangyuyiwu includes solo, duet and group dances for the imperial court.

The Chinese theater and opera arts gradually developed towards their mature stage from the Baixi of the Han Dynasty, Zaju of the Song Dynasty, Yuanben of the Jin Dynasty, Zaju of the Yuan Dynasty, and Nanxi of the Southern Song Dynasty. Along with the development of commodity economy during the Song Dynasty, entertainment business became prosperous in the big cities such as Dongjing (Kaifeng, Henan Province) and Lin-an (Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province). Quyi, the folk art of story-telling and singing, also became a popular entertainment in the big cities during the Song Dynasty. The history of Quyi can be traced back to the Han Dynasty by the Han scuplture of Drumbeating and Story-telling Figure.

The four major characters of Chinese operas appeared in the Zaju. The four characters include Sheng (a male character), Dan (a female character), Jing (generally a warrior), and Cho (a comedian). Picture 135 shows the mural painting of Zhongduxiu is Acting Here of the Yuan Dynasty. On this mural, the performance of actor Zhongduxiu was accompanied by flute-playing musician.

Beijing Opera, a representative art form of the Chinese opera, was formed during the late Qing Dynasty and 1s a popular entertainment today. Beijing Opera and hundreds of local Chinese operas represent the traditional Chinese theatrical arts.

There were tribes lived on the Chinese mainland during the Ancien’t Times. Some of those tribes became the Han nationality which forms the majority of Chinese population. The Han people have lived on the Central Plains of China. Some of those tribes became minority nationalities of China. The music history of China reflects the mixing of traditions and cultures of different Chinese nationalities.

The music of the Western Regions of China strongly influenced the music of the Tang Dynasty. Yanyuedaqu, the court banquet music, was also influenced by the music of India, Korea, Cambodia, and other countries. There are no musical scores preserved. However, there are descriptions of musical life in the poems of the Tang Dynasty. The performance of the Yanyuedaqu was depicted in a well-known painting of the Dynasty, Hanxizai’s Evening Banquet.

Quzici are artistic songs which were popular during Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties. Quzici is a hybrid of the musical of the Central Plains, the Western Regions of China, Middle Asia, India, and Burma. Quzici include traditional music, foreign music, folk songs, and new melodies. The songs composed by Jiangkui (Baishidaoren) are representative works of the Quzici.

The pipa was originally an musics instrument of the Western Regions of China the western pipa and a similar instrument of the Central Plains were both popular instruments during the Sui and Tang Dynasties. A modern pipa is held vertically and played by fingers, while the western pipa of the Middle Age was held horizontally and played by a plectrum.

Chinese music influenced the musics of her neighboring countries during the last several thousand years. For example, Chinese musical instruments of the Middle Age have been Preserved in the Zhengcanyuan of Japan, and played generations after generations. The musical theory of Korea shows strong influence of Chinese music.

On summary, Chinese music, from, the Ancient Times to the present, has been influenced by musics from foreign countries and Chinese minority nationalities. The mixture of cultures of different regions and countries formed an prosperous culture system, the Han Culture. The history of Chinese music reflects the cultural exchange between China and her neighboring countries, and between the Han nationalites and minority nationalities.

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Appendix: Chronicle of the Chinese History

Paleolithic Period (1,00,00-10,000 B.C.)

Neolithic Age (10,000-7,000 B.C.)

Dynasties: xia (21* -16″. Century B.C.); Shang (Yin, 16″ -11″ Century B.C.)

Western Zhou (1,100-771 B.C.); Eastern Zhou (770-221B.C., including the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period); Qin (221-206 B.C.); Western Han (206 B.C.-25 A.D.); Eastern Han (25-220 A.D.); Gin (265-420); Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589); Sui (581-618); Tang (618-907); Five Dynasties (907-960); Northern Song (960-1127); Southern Song (1127-1279); Yuan (1271-1368); Ming (1368-1644); Qing (1644-1911).