(一)

在中国大陆上，一般认为，大约在一百万年以前旧石器时代的人类已经生息繁衍（元谋原人有人鉴定为一百七十万年以前的原人，有人认为只有九十万年左右）。

一九五四年在山西省发现的距今十万年左右的丁村人，已经使用一种称之为「飞石索」的狩猎工具，这种工具可能就是后来演变为「石埙」的乐器。这种石埙大体上有三种类型：梨形的、筒形的和鱼形的。后来发现有用兽骨做成筒形的骨哨，最初发现的骨哨是河姆渡文化　的遗址，但是这些骨哨是乐器或是狩猎工具还不能确定。一九七九年在河南舞阳县贾湖的新石器时代遗址，出土了十几只比河姆渡骨哨更为完善的乐器——贾湖骨笛。这种骨笛已经和文献上有记载的篪基本一致。这个骨笛除吹孔外已经有七个音孔，而且每个音孔都有明显的开孔的横线，证明在制作时经过了一定的计算，特别是第七个音孔之上还凿了一小孔，大约是为校正第七音孔所发的音而开凿的。这个骨笛是殉葬品，在一个墓穴内共有两只，一只破裂，一只完好，考古学家认为，这是贾湖一期文化遗存，根据碳十四年代测定资料，贾湖一期文化距今已有七千九百二十年，前后差误修正为一百五十年（树轮校正为距今七千七百三十七年，前后差误修正为一百二十八年）。经测音鉴定：筒音为^＃F⁵＋44，第七音孔為A⁵＋8，第六音孔為B⁵－25，第五音孔為C⁶＋24，第四音孔為D⁶＋16，第三音孔為E⁶＋16，第二音孔為G⁶－40，第一音孔為^＃A⁶－42（骨笛全长二十二点二公分）。据此，这个骨笛已经可以奏出中国古代传统的下征调五声和七声音阶，也可奏出清商六声音阶。这虽然只是一个孤例，但也可以证明在仰韶文化之前还存在着一种古文化。这个文化分布于淮河中下游及其支流，最北达到河南的东南部。最南达到安徽的中部，历史学家考证，这里是中国古代东夷集团的势力范围。文献记载这是中国古传说中太昊氏活动的地方（传说中的太昊氏的坟墓称之为太昊陵，就在这个地区的今河南省淮阳县）。考古学家认为，贾湖文化和大汶口文化有着密切关系，大汶口文化距今约六千年，但考古学家认为大汶口文化属于少昊氏部族，如果历史学家所说的太昊、少昊为先后之分，这种骨笛先于大汶口文化约二千年，便更是可信的了。

这个约八千年前的古遗存中，已经发现有殉葬的灵龟，龟甲上面还刻有几个文字，其中可以辨认的已经和殷代的甲骨文大致相同。可见当时已有文字，这有待于今后更多的考古发现才能进一步讨论。

新石器时代的古遗存中，还有大量的陶埙。一种假定认为陶埙是从石埙发展而成的。目前考古发现的陶埙有距今六千七百年左右的半坡一音孔陶埙，测音为F²和^bA²，构成一个小三度音程。稍后的山西二音孔陶埙和郑州一音孔陶埙，都有一个小三度音程。这可能说明小三度音程或者是五声音阶构成上的特征所在，也可能是和中国的语言发音有某种联系。这还有待于更多地考古发现，才能得出结论。

陶埙这种乐器从一音孔逐渐发展到五音孔。甘肃的陶埙已经能发出四个乐音，河南辉县五音孔陶埙，特别是河南安阳小屯五音孔陶埙已经能吹出十二个乐音，完全可以构成一个完整的七声音阶。

但是，对于上述的音阶形成，无论在年代判定上还是音阶构成上，当代的音乐学家都还存在不同的意见。

过去一般把有文字记载的历史才称之为信史，但汉代历史学家司马迁所记载的殷商史，已为后来发现的甲骨文证明为信史。中国古史上的所谓夏、商、周三代的夏文化，最近考古学已有初步的发现，河南省有关部门还正在广泛地开展着这一工作，上述的骨笛就是重要的发现之一。如果按年代计算，贾湖文化不仅在夏代之前，甚至在传说中的五帝之前。初步结论只能是，中国大陆的音乐文化还在新石器时代晚期就已经有相当高度的发展了。

(二)

中国大陆上，一般称之为上古埋藏居住的部族很多，但是还在先秦时代，大陆上各部族就进行了各种形式的融合和交流。以现存兄弟民族最多的云南省为例（中国共有五十多个兄弟民族，云南省就有二十五个），在古代称之为氐羌的便分布在今云南省一带。古代历史学家，从司马迁到杨雄都说夏代的禹帝是羌人。文献记载羌人参加过周代（公元前十一世纪至七七一年）的多次战争。周朝时云南的兄弟民族便开始向中原王朝朝贡，这种朝贡一直延续到明清。战国时代（公元前四七五至二二一年）云南曾经从属于蜀国和楚国。公元前二二一年秦王朝统一了中国大陆，并在云南设置了官吏，秦汉之际中原和云南的交通便很频繁了。云南又被称之为奭人的是最早被汉化的土著居民。西汉时（公元前二○六至公元八年）设益州郡统治云南一带。而历史上云南又和藏人有过很多的交往，藏人时而联合汉人，时而又联合奭人。类似的史实多不胜数，可见现在的中华人民共和国一方面说是一个多民族的国家；另一方面中华民族又是一个从远古以来就相互融合和交往的多民族的集合体。

古代中国的历史传说，参杂了许多神话。有的是把部族的首领神化了，这和古人的图腾崇拜相一致，所以传说中上古音乐也大多含有图腾崇拜的意义。如传说中的黄帝以云为图腾，所以他的音乐称为「云门」，正像他的军队称为「云师」一样。

从图腾音乐发展为典礼音乐，就成了后来的所谓的雅乐，从三代的周一直保存到最后的王朝清。当然每个朝代的更迭，一方面保存了前代的部分雅乐，另一方面新王朝也自己制礼作乐。这种典礼音乐，最初作为维系社会群体的文化活动，体现了社会群体的文化意识（祖先崇拜便是这种社会意识之一），到了农耕社会，祭天地又成为重要的国家典礼。

最早的国家典礼活动，是被称之为「韶乐」的音乐，传说是舜帝时代的乐章，可能因为音乐有九段，所以又称为「九招」或「九韶」。根据文献记载，这种音乐是集合诗歌、舞蹈和器乐三者为一的形式。据说韶乐用琴瑟伴奏来歌唱，用以招唤祖先的灵魂。以后用鼗鼓和木制的柷、敔来开始和结束音乐，用笙管一类的乐器参杂其间，伴以化装为鸟兽的舞者来跳舞，最后，还有化装为凤凰的舞者出现。这可以证明，一方面以龙凤为图腾的部族群落和以其他鸟兽为图腾的部族，已经形成了早期的文化认同，表示了许多部落的联盟与合流。到了农耕社会，这种乐舞活动便有了每年岁末的「腊祭」。其歌词说：「土地平整了，洪水都流到大沟里去，虫灾不再发生，草木丰茂」。孔子把韶乐和「武」乐（杀伐之声）作了对比，认为「武」乐「尽美矣，未尽善也」，而韶乐则「尽善尽美」。这种善大于美的美学思想，一直为几千年来的儒家所共识。另一方面，这种「腊祭」的音乐正是中华民族作为世界最早的农耕民族之一对于农耕丰收的最早的文化艺术意识的形成。

另外一个记载更为详尽，传说中的「葛天氏之乐」共分八段，其中第一段是祝愿人民子孙繁衍，第二段是表现图腾崇拜，第三、四段是表现勤于农耕，第五段和第七段是敬天地，第六段是敬帝功，最后一段是各种鸟兽的舞蹈。传说中的咸池乐，后来的文献记载说是尧帝根据黄帝的乐舞改编的。 「咸池」是一个星名，古人认为此星主管农耕，咸池星明亮则田禾丰收，咸池星不明则有灾变，所以这种舞乐在春天举行，以祈求五谷丰登。此外，还有描写战争的舞乐，如与传说中黄帝、炎帝和蚩尤战争有关的舞乐，周灭商（公元前一○二七年）建立了夸耀战功的「大武」之乐。还有祝愿人类繁衍的乐舞，后来文献记载中称为祭祀「高禖」的「万舞洋洋」，也是在早春季节进行的。传说这时男女可以自由结合（这种风俗至今在中国少数民族中还有残留）。由此可见从图腾崇拜到祈求民族繁衍，进而祈求狩猎、农耕丰收以求温饱的文化意识，在上古时期的诸种共生文化意识的并存现象。

后代把上述各种舞乐归纳为文舞和武舞两类，这种分类一直延续许多朝代。

上述上古乐舞形象化的古遗存，仅见于青海孙家寨出土的彩绘陶盆。这是一九七三年出土的，陶盆口径二十九公分，腹径二十八公分，底径十公分，高十四公分，上面有舞蹈人形画面三组，五人一组，每人都拖着一条尾巴，考古学家认为是五千年前的遗存。这可能是上古乐舞所谓「百兽率舞」的形象。

上古时代的鼓，最早的形制可能是木鼓。现在广西的兄弟民族还保存有这种鼓，在独木上挖一个深槽，敲击发声。文化学家诊断，这种乐器可能还含有女性生殖器崇拜的意义。

另外一种鼓是陶鼓，山西省有这种鼓出土，但这件乐器是几十年前发掘出来的，未经考古学家鉴定。同类的陶鼓，是山东大汶口文化遗存，时限测定为六千年左右，其中一件白陶器，在器口的近处，残存八十四块鳄鱼的鳞片，推测这是用鳄鱼皮制作的陶鼓。

人类进入铜器时代后，中国人民开始用青铜制作乐器，主要是青铜制作的钟。河南温县出土的三件一组的编钟，这三个钟的测音是：D、E、G。故宫博物院所藏的殷代编钟和上述钟测音不同，殷代编钟的测音是^bD、微降F和^bA。

震惊世界的考古发现是湖北隋县一九七八年发掘出土的青铜乐器曾侯乙墓编钟，全套编钟共六十五件，总音域跨五个八度，测音基本上相同于西方现代的C大调，中心音域十二律齐备，可以在三个八度内构成完整的半音阶。特别是钟上都有错金铭文，记载了当时楚、齐、晋、周、申和增国的各种律名、阶名、变化音名的对照，不仅说明了中国古代十二律体系的存在，而且证明早在春秋时代（公元前七七○至四七六年）中原各国还有了中国古代十二律的异名，并且证明了早在二千四百多年以前，对于近代西洋乐理中大、小、增、减各种音程和八度音的概念，已经有了各自民族独特的表述方式。

周代的乐器已经有七十种左右，并有了所谓八音分类法，根据乐器的质地的不同，分别称之为金、石、土、革、丝、木、匏和竹。上述曾侯乙墓中乐器中便有丝类的琴和瑟，革类的鼓，竹类的篪和排箫，匏类的笙，石类的编磬。这种八音乐器，一直到清代还在使用。

过去一般把上述的雅乐称为庙堂乐舞，不仅在宫廷的典礼中使用，而且在士人祭孔时也在使用。最新的发现还证明，这种典礼音乐在民间也同样使用，山西省最近发现称之为「三晋古赛」的十四种抄本，最早的是明嘉靖元年（公元一五二二年）的抄本，最晚的是民国十四年（公元一九二五年）的抄本，这种民间迎神赛会的活动，实际上是中古时代宫廷音乐流传到民间的遗存。在上述的抄本中说：「夫大礼者，威仪也。 」古代文献上说：「礼祭三百，威仪三千。」可见这种民间活动是有很长久的历史的。而这种活动的内容：一是祭神，二是庆丰，三是娱人。可惜的是，这些抄本中只记载了许多舞蹈的名称和许多的古乐的名称，以及戏曲的名称，文中所谓「四十大曲，十七宫调」，又说「男记大曲四十，女记小令三千」，虽和文献记载相符，但都没有留下乐谱，而在这种赛会中担任过乐工和舞工的人，都已八、九十岁了。虽在文献记载中可以证明，这种民俗活动和隋、唐、宋的宫廷音乐有着直接的关系。这种祭神祈福乐舞活动，在宗教音乐中还可以找到残留的痕迹。

一般说，把先秦时代可以称之为中国音乐的上古时期，其代表性的音乐为舞乐（氏族的或宫廷的祭典音乐和民间的祭祀和风俗音乐）。秦、汉、魏、晋、南北朝、隋、唐可称之为中国音乐的中古时期，其代表性的音乐为歌舞（以唐代的燕乐为典型，宫廷的宴舞音乐和民间的饮宴音乐）。宋、元、明、清时期为中国音乐的近古时期，其代表性的音乐为戏曲（音乐戏剧、有故事性的歌舞、叙事性的说唱音乐和抒情性的吟唱音乐的总称）。

从汉代起就有一种称之为鼓吹的音乐，通称它为「马上乐」（军乐）。这种早期的鼓吹音乐毕竟无从考查了，但是在山西的圣母庙壁画中还可以看到这种音乐演奏的形象。经历史学家考据，这幅壁画绘制于明代（公元一五四九年）。

(三)

中古时期的唐代燕乐（宫廷饮宴的音乐），这种音乐形成的契机是中原汉民族和西北部西域民族在音乐上的融合，这种融合，时代向上可以追溯到南北朝和隋，地域上向西可以追溯到中亚各国。隋代的七部乐和九部乐，不仅包括中国西域各地的音乐，还包括了印度音乐、高丽音乐，以及中亚的安国（今苏联乌兹别克共和国一带）音乐。唐代因隋旧制，立九部乐和十部乐，还包括了扶南（今柬埔寨）音乐，从上述各国各族音乐的交流，形成了唐代燕乐大曲，这是一种综合器乐，歌唱和舞蹈的大型歌舞音乐。上承汉魏的相和、清商大曲，并把上古的文舞和武舞改称软舞和健舞。软舞中有绿腰（后称六么）、乌夜啼等。健舞有剑器、胡旋和柘枝等。这种大曲中最著名的是霓裳羽衣曲，据说这是“西凉创作，明皇润色”。但这种传说不如说是这种音乐具有浓厚的西域佛教音乐的成份，所以诗人杜牧才说：“月闻仙曲调，霓作舞衣裳”。这种燕乐大曲，在著名的五代绘画《韩熙载夜宴图》中有形象的描绘。而且由于佛教的东传，在石窟艺术和雕刻艺术作品中，都可以见到当时的乐器形象。

福建泉州的开元寺，始建于唐垂拱二年（公元六八六年），虽然这个建筑曾经多次重修，但文献证明毁于元代（公元一三五七年）的大殿，就有现存的木雕飞天。建筑学家考证，元代时即有的现存乐伎雕刻，明代重修或为原作複制，或为原作重修。这些木雕飞天手持的乐器有唐代的琵琶、拍板、尺八和唐宋时代的二弦（也就是见之于宋代文献的奚琴），但已增有元代的胡琴。

河南开封的繁塔，根据出土的残石刻证明可能重修于太平兴国二年（公元九七七年），但民间传说北宋太祖建国后（公元九六○年后）因繁塔高于皇宫（这可与太平兴国二年的残碑互证），故将繁塔上部拆除，但原石刻仍然完整保存。石刻上的乐器有鼓、鼗鼓、钹、法锣、琵琶、管、笛、排箫、拍板等。

佛教传入中国后，从北魏到隋、唐各地开凿了许多石窟，除了著名的龙门石窟、敦煌石窟外，山西云岗石窟的第十二窟，被称为音乐窟，有许多乐伎的石刻。这个石窟从北魏和平六年（公元四六八年）开始到太和十六年（公元四九二年）修建，这些乐伎所持的乐器和我们已经瞭解的唐代乐器基本相同。

唐代之后的五代，前蜀皇帝王建（公元八四七至九一八年）的陵墓底座有著名的乐伎石刻二十四件，石刻上的乐器基本上也和唐代的乐器相同，其中特别值得注意的有卧箜篌和吹叶。

此外，王建墓石刻中正面有两个舞伎雕像，据历史学家考证，这两个舞伎的舞姿是唐代著名的霓裳羽衣舞（从唐代白居易、元稹等人的诗歌中可以瞭解，这个舞蹈有独舞、对舞和群舞等多种形式，而且还流传到民间），前蜀王建仅晚于唐代几十年，这个著名的燕乐大曲，流传于四川小王朝的宫廷中，是完全可能也可信的。

(四)

宋、元、明、清时期，首先兴起的曲子词，是一种新型的艺术歌曲。这由于自北魏、北周以来，中国西域地区音乐和中亚、印度、缅甸的音乐流传于中原，宣扬佛教教义的音乐也很盛行，所以从隋代起便兴起了曲词这种艺术歌曲。宋代著名的音乐文献《碧鸡漫志》中说“古歌变为古乐府，古乐府变为曲子”。

这种曲子词，根据曲词的名称来看，大体上包括传统古曲、外来乐曲、民间歌曲和自度新曲。宋代的姜夔（白石道人）创作的艺术歌曲，便是这种音乐的代表作。

同时，由汉代的百戏发展而为宋代的杂剧，再到金、元的院本，一直到南宋的南戏，中国的戏曲音乐完全趋于成熟。

宋代的商品经济有所发展，大城市如东京（今河南开封）、临安（今浙江杭州）等地，市民音乐活动广泛发展。曲艺中的说书，更在大城市的勾栏瓦舍中成为人民的重要娱乐活动。当然，这种说书形式在汉代已经出现，著名的雕塑——东汉的击鼓说书俑，可为证明。

戏曲艺术在元代已完全成熟，扮演者的旦、淨、末已经具有后世的所谓生、旦、淨、末四大行当的雏形。从著名的元代戏曲壁画“中都秀在此作场”，可以看到生、旦、淨、丑的行当，还可以看到用横笛伴奏的乐师。

从宋、元南戏发展到明传奇，以及被称为乱弹的各种地方戏曲，如“秦腔、吹腔、二簧调、梆子腔……”，最后在清代形成了以西皮、二黄为主体的主要代表剧种——京戏。京戏和数以百计的地方戏，构成了近代戏曲艺术的繁荣局面。

(五)

概括地说，中国音乐的上古时代可称之为乐舞时代，中古时期的音乐可称之为歌舞时代，近古时期的音乐可称之为戏曲时代。但是，上述各种音乐又不能截然用时代来划分。上古的雅乐在历代王朝中都延续著，中古的歌舞音乐也和上古的乐舞特别是流传于民间的乐舞有著承传的关係，而近古的戏曲音乐和中古的歌舞音乐相联繫，一直到近代的山西还在迎神赛会中密切结合。上古时期的琴音乐，在晋代一直到明清，都在不断地发展之中。现代的琵琶音乐，虽然在隋唐时期就有西来的琵琶和土生的阮咸并存，但在漫长的历史时期中弹奏的方式从横抱发展为直抱，从用拨子弹奏发展到用手指弹奏，已经完全和西来的五弦琵琶以及横抱琵琶大异其趣了。一方面中国西域地区和中亚的音乐，都对中国音乐的发展产生过巨大的影响，同时，中国音乐也对日本、朝鲜、印支半岛发生过重要的影响，因此，一部中国音乐史在某种意义上也可说是一部亚洲音乐史。日本的正仓院至今保存著精美的中国中古时期的乐器，而且至今还世代传承地被演奏。朝鲜半岛在音乐理论上至今还保有中国音乐理论的影响。

(六)

中华民族各族间的融合和文化交流，在上古时期便开始了，文献证明，华族音乐自古就有“四方之乐”和南北各族的地域性的“八风之乐”。

传说中的颛顼氏是黄帝之孙，颛顼氏出生于今巴蜀之地的“若水”（今四川省内），但他又“实处空桑”，即活动于中原一带，在当时他已是许多部族的首领之一。文献证明，南方的楚文化，其部族也自称“高阳之苗裔”，文献中颛顼之乐，是中原及南方各族音乐的结合，并以“承云”为祭上帝之乐，“云”便是黄帝的图腾，而且已明确提到“龙”或“雷神”，山西夏文化遗址中发现的鼓腔内残存有鳄鱼鳞片和山东出土的陶器之侧有八十多片鳄鱼鳞片可互为佐证，说明当时以“龙”（可能是现在扬子鳄的祖先的神化物）为图腾已有很久远的传统。古文献中说，雷神“龙身而人头，鼓其腹则雷也”，因而，以其皮为鼓皮，可为顺理成章。稍后的铜鼓便是这种鼍鼓（鳄鱼皮鼓）的仿制品，今南中国出土的铜鼓很多。

中国音乐发展中，有南乐为北乐所用，也有北乐为南乐同化，这正是中国各部族音乐文化的共生状态的表现。南方的楚文化对北方的汉文化有强烈的影响，一直到汉代皇帝的“房中乐”还用“楚声”。

魏、晋、南北朝是政治上的南北对峙，但音乐上的“清商乐”中便有“楚调”，实际上“清商乐”是汉代的“相和”向南传播，汉代又将“南音”与之共列为“相和五调伎”，所以，音乐的自北而南，又自南而北，相互融合，形成了新的音乐。

北方的鼓吹乐，本是北方鲜卑族的音乐，汉代盛行于中原，但南朝的梁代，南方的鼓吹乐便吸收了北方的鼓吹乐，南朝的陈代宫廷中，便演奏北方箫鼓，称之为“代北”。这都说明了南北音乐的合流。

隋唐时期，一方面是中原和西域以至中亚音乐的融合，另一方面唐代以南朝梁、陈旧乐并杂以吴、楚之音及北朝周、齐胡戍之音而作大唐雅乐，这就是说，南北音乐和华夷音乐（南北和中外音乐）融合为一个“合体”了。

到了近古时代的戏曲音乐，更是一个南北音乐文化合流的过程。明代戏曲音乐家王骥德在《曲律》一书中，一开始便说：“曲之有南北，非始今日也”。以后从歌词、地域和音乐风格说明南、北曲的差异，但总结之为“同一师承”。从历史上看，唐代的参军戏和歌舞戏特别是寺庙戏场（如近代山西还保存的迎神赛会）便已经具有戏曲的雏形。同时，当时已有南北的交流，今四川、浙东也已有早期戏曲的流行和北传，而宋代以后，北宋襍剧一方面从中原（今河南）北流到元大都（今北京），宋襍剧成为金院本（元襍剧的先驱）。另一方面向南流传，形成了“南戏”。北曲是汉、蒙古、女真文化合流的产物，南曲则是中原音乐与东南沿海各省文化合流的结晶。所以南戏最早称之为“温州襍剧”和“永嘉襍剧”，仍存宋襍剧之名，其初为“宋人词而益以里巷歌谣”，但北方人民大量南迁，宋代的民间瓦舍艺人也大量南下，其诸宫调、小唱、细乐、鼓板也传入南方，历史上，远在晋代永嘉二年（公元三○八年）中原人便大量南迁福建，至今福建南部方言还保存著许多中原中古时期的音韵。今天仍存在的“南音”（又称“南管”）音乐可为佐证。

戏曲音乐中的“南北合套”的存在，说明南、北音乐的合流过程。到明代，北曲的深雄和南曲的婉约形成了共生互补，集中体现在昆山腔之中，昆山腔第一个成功的剧目《浣纱记》中，还是男主角唱北曲，女主角唱南曲。到了清代的“乱弹”，其中“高腔”，“梆子腔”以及后来的“皮黄腔”，实际上不仅南北合流，而且又东西合流了。

总之，中国音乐自古至今，虽乐有南北，声有东西，但流传中既有北乐南传，也有南乐北化；既有西乐东传，又有西乐中化，这种音乐文化的相兼互融，形成了一个源远流长，经久不衰的共生共荣的文化系统。历史上的周秦文化、齐鲁文化、楚文化、吴越文化、岭南文化、滇文化……融合而成的汉文化，又和中国西部直到中亚地区的西域文化，形成一个共生互融，互补互成的数以千年计的音乐文化系统。

作者单位：
前中国文化部办公厅主任、艺术局局长
前中央音乐学院院长
前中国国务院学位委员会艺术学科评议委员
前《音乐研究》主编
前中国国家教委艺术教育委员会主任
前中国音乐出版社社长
前中国音乐家协会副主席

An Outline of the history of Chinese music from the Chinese musical instruments found in archaeology sites (abstract)

Zhao Feng

It is generally believed that human species lived on the land of China in the Paleolithic Period about a million years ago. It was discovered in 1954 in Shanxi Province that the Dingcun Man (100,000 years before present) used a hunting tool called flying-stone-chain. The hunting tool probably developed into the musical instrument of stone xun. There are three types of stone xun: pear-shaped, tube-shaped and fish-shaped. The tube-shaped, animal bone whistles were found from archaeology sites of the Hemudu Culture. However it is not determined whether they are musical instruments or hunting tools. The Jiahu flute is a better instrument than the Hemudu bone whistles. There are seven holes and a mouth hole on the Jiahu bone flute. There are conspicuous lines to mark the opening locations of the holes. This may indicate that calculation had been made in making the instrument. There is a small hole beside the seventh hole. The small hole was probably put there to adjust the pitch of the seventh hole. The Jiahu bone flute was a sacrificial object. There are two flutes in one grave. The grave is a relic of the early Jiahu Culture (7737+-123 years before present by radio carbon date). The length of the bone flute is 22.2 cm. The tube pitch is tested as *F5 + 44, the seventh hole A’ + 8, the sixth hole B’-25, the fifth hole C° + 24, the fourth hole D° + 16, the third hole E° + 16, the second hole G®°-40, and the first hole * A6-42. I herefore the bone flute plays both the five or seven-notes scale of Xia Zhi and six-notes scale of Qing Shang of the ancient Chinese musical system. In the same grave where the bone flute was found, sacrificial tortoise shells were unearthed. There are characters carved on the tortoise shells. Some of the recognizable characters are similar to those of the Yin Dynasty. The Jiahu bone flute indicates that musical culture of China began to develop in the late Neolithic Age.

Pottery xuns (similar to ocarina) were unearthed from archaeology sites of the Neolithic Age. Pottery xun probably developed from stone xun. The Banpo one-hole pottery xun dates back to about 6,700 years before present. Its pitches are F’ and A’ flat which form a minor third interval. Both the Shanxi two-hole pottery xun and the Zhengzhou one-hole pottery xun have one minor third interval. The minor third interval may be a character of the Pentatonic scale, of may relate with the pronunciation of the Chinese language. Contemporary musicologists have different opinions on the dating and origin of the Pentatonic scale. More works are needed to solve this problem.

The one-hole pottery xun gradually developed into the five-hole pottery xun. The Gansu pottery xun produces four musical notes. The five=hole pottery xuns of Huixian and Anyangxiaotun, Henan Province, play 12 notes. The anyangxiaotun xun (Yin Dynasty) plays a complete 7-notes scale.

The ancient history of China is generally divided into two periods: the Ancient Times (2,100 B.C. -220 A.D.) and the Middle Age (220-960 A.D.) The historical records of ancient China are mixed with fairy tales and legends. From historical legends, music of the Ancient Times often signifies totem worship. For example, the legendary Huangdi worshiped clouds, and his music was called “the clouds”.

Ceremonial music, the Yayue, was developed from totem music of ancient tribes. The Yayue exists from the Zhou dynasty to Qing, the last dynasty in Chinese history. Each new dynasty kept a part of the Yayue from the preceding dynasty, and added rituals and music of their own. The ceremonial music reflects cultural ideologies. Ancestor worship is one of those ideologies. The earliest ceremonial activity was Shaoyue. The Shaoyue is a combination of poetry and dancing, accompanied with singing and instrumental music to call back the spirit of ancestors. According to historical documents, instruments qin, she, taogu, wooden chu, and yu were used in the ceremony of Shaoyue. Worship of heaven and earth became an important state ceremony in an agricultural society. The music of Laji is for the celebration of harvest, the earliest manifestation of the cultural and artistic consciousness of the Chinese nation which is one of the oldest agricultural nations in the world.

Confucian made a contrast between the Shaoyue and Wuyue (music of war). Confucian considered that the Wuyue is perfectly beautiful but not perfectly good. The aesthetic thought that goodness is more important than beauty has been shared by the Confucianists for more than two thousand years.

There were several parts in Getianshi, a legendary dance of the Ancient Times: wish for the increase of population, worhip of totems, farm work, respect of heaven and earth, tespect of emperor’ s merits, and dances of birds and animals. The music of Getianshi is the earliest record in history wich mentioned dance music. A painted pottery basin was unearthed in Sunjiazhai, Qinghai Province in 1973. There are three groups of dancers painted on the basin. Each group consists five dancers, and each dancer has a tail. The painting may be the image of the dance Baishoushuaiwu (the dance of hundred animals). The pottery basin is about five thousand years before present.

The earliest drums are probably made of wood. Wooden drums are still being used among the minorities of Guangxi today. The woden drum is very simple; a deep slot is made on a piece of wood which produces sound when it is struck. Sociologists believe that the wooden drum may indicate the worship of female genital genital organ.

Pottery drums were unearthed in Shanxi Province, but they were not fully studied yet. Pottery drums were found at archaeology sites of the Dawenkou Culture (about 6,000 years before present), Shandong Province. 84 pieces of crocodile scales were found near the opening of a white pottery pot. It was inferred that this is a crocodile skin covered pottery drum.

The major instruments made of bronze are bells. The pitches of three bells, which form a set of chime-bells unearthed in Wenxin, Henan Province, are C, E and G. The pitches of the Yin Dynasty chime-bells (collection of the Palace Museum, Beijing) are Dflat, F (slightly flat) and A flat.

The discovery of a set of bronze chime-bells from the Zenghouyi tomb (5″ centry B. C.) consists of 85 bells with a register of 5 octaves. The pitches are basically the same as the Occidental C scale. The chime-bells plays complete 12 tones in its middle register. Therefore the chimebells can make a complete chromatic scale within 3 octaves. There are gold-inlaid inscriptions on the bells. The inscriptions record the different names and scales of a tone for the Chu, Qi, Jin, Zhou, Shen, and Zeng Kindoms of the Spring and Autumn Period (771-403 B. C.). This proves the existence of an ancient Chinese 12 tone temperament system and its variation in different regions of the Central Plains of China. Therefore , as early as 5th century B.C., Chinese people mastered a musical system with concepts which are equivalent to the concepts of intervals (including major, minor, augmented, and diminished ) and octaves of the Occidental music.

During the Zhou Dynasty, there were about seventy musical instruments. The instruments were classified by their material as metal, stone, pottery, leather, string, wood, gourd, and bamboo. There were qin and she of the string, drum of the leather, chi and paixiao of the bamboo, sheng of the gourd, and serial qing of the stone types among the instruments unearthed in the Zenghouyi tomb. Those instruments and the classification were still used in the court of the Qing dynasty about two thousand years later.

Yayue, a temple dance music, was played in court ceremony and memorial ceremony for Confucian. The folk music of god-welcoming festivals of Shanxi Province was developed from the court music. 14 copies of recently discovered manuscripts date from 1522 to 1925. The manuscripts record the folk festivals of Shanxi Province. It is written in the manuscripts that there are three hundred pieces of court music, whereas there are three thousand pieces of ceremonial folk music. Although there are no musical scores in the manuscripts, the records do prove that the folk music of Shanxi Province relate with the court music of the Sui, Tang and Song Dynasties.

Guchui, known as music on horseback, was military music which may date back as early as the Han dynasty. The performance of Guchui can be seen on the mural paintings of the Jiyi Temple, Shanxi Province.

The Katyuan Temple at Quanzhou, Fujian Province was first built in 686A.D., and had been rebuilt many times. Documentary records show that the wood sculpture of the Flying Apsaras 1n its great hall have been existed since the Yuan Dynasty (1357). According to architectural investigation, the wood sculptures are duplication or restoration of the original work of the Yuan Dynasty. The Flying Apsaras are images of Yueyi (musicians). The instruments hold by the Yueji include pipa, paiban (clappers) and chiba (a wind instrument) of the Tang Dynasty, erxian (a two-string fiddle) of the Tand and Song Dynasties, and huqing (fiddle) of the Yuan Dynasty.

According to a stone tablet, the Fanta Tower at Kaifeng, Henan Province was built on 927 A.D. The top of the tower was removed around 960 A.D. because it was higher than the imperial palace. The original carving on the stone tablet includes drums, taogu, bo (symbals), faluo (gong), pipa, guan (wood wind), di (fiute), paixiao (pan-pipe), and paiban (clappers).

Grottoes of Buddhism temples were built from 5th to 10th centuries by the royal families of the North, Sui and Tang Dynasties. The 12th cave of Yungang Grottoes, Shanxi Province was built from 465 to 492 A.D. It is called the cave of music because there are many stone sculptures of Yueji (musician) in the cave. The musical instruments hold by the figures of Yueji are similar to those of the Tang Dynasty.

There are 24 stone sculptures of Yueji on a pedestal in the tomb of Emperor Wangjian (847-918 A.D., Early Shu Kingdom of the Five Dynasties ) The musical instruments on the stone sculptures are similar to those of the Tang Dynasty, including wokonghou (similar to harp) and chueyie (playing orange leaf as an instrument). There is a stone carving of two Yueyji on the front side of Wangyjian’s tomb. According to historical research, the dancing moement of the Yueji is the famous Nishangyuyiwu of the Tang Dynasty. From the poems of Tang Dynasty, we know that the Nishangyuyiwu includes solo, duet and group dances for the imperial court.

The Chinese theater and opera arts gradually developed towards their mature stage from the Baixi of the Han Dynasty, Zaju of the Song Dynasty, Yuanben of the Jin Dynasty, Zaju of the Yuan Dynasty, and Nanxi of the Southern Song Dynasty. Along with the development of commodity economy during the Song Dynasty, entertainment business became prosperous in the big cities such as Dongjing (Kaifeng, Henan Province) and Lin-an (Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province). Quyi, the folk art of story-telling and singing, also became a popular entertainment in the big cities during the Song Dynasty. The history of Quyi can be traced back to the Han Dynasty by the Han scuplture of Drumbeating and Story-telling Figure.

The four major characters of Chinese operas appeared in the Zaju. The four characters include Sheng (a male character), Dan (a female character), Jing (generally a warrior), and Cho (a comedian). Picture 135 shows the mural painting of Zhongduxiu is Acting Here of the Yuan Dynasty. On this mural, the performance of actor Zhongduxiu was accompanied by flute-playing musician.

Beijing Opera, a representative art form of the Chinese opera, was formed during the late Qing Dynasty and 1s a popular entertainment today. Beijing Opera and hundreds of local Chinese operas represent the traditional Chinese theatrical arts.

There were tribes lived on the Chinese mainland during the Ancien’t Times. Some of those tribes became the Han nationality which forms the majority of Chinese population. The Han people have lived on the Central Plains of China. Some of those tribes became minority nationalities of China. The music history of China reflects the mixing of traditions and cultures of different Chinese nationalities.

The music of the Western Regions of China strongly influenced the music of the Tang Dynasty. Yanyuedaqu, the court banquet music, was also influenced by the music of India, Korea, Cambodia, and other countries. There are no musical scores preserved. However, there are descriptions of musical life in the poems of the Tang Dynasty. The performance of the Yanyuedaqu was depicted in a well-known painting of the Dynasty, Hanxizai’s Evening Banquet.

Quzici are artistic songs which were popular during Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties. Quzici is a hybrid of the musical of the Central Plains, the Western Regions of China, Middle Asia, India, and Burma. Quzici include traditional music, foreign music, folk songs, and new melodies. The songs composed by Jiangkui (Baishidaoren) are representative works of the Quzici.

The pipa was originally an musics instrument of the Western Regions of China the western pipa and a similar instrument of the Central Plains were both popular instruments during the Sui and Tang Dynasties. A modern pipa is held vertically and played by fingers, while the western pipa of the Middle Age was held horizontally and played by a plectrum.

Chinese music influenced the musics of her neighboring countries during the last several thousand years. For example, Chinese musical instruments of the Middle Age have been Preserved in the Zhengcanyuan of Japan, and played generations after generations. The musical theory of Korea shows strong influence of Chinese music.

On summary, Chinese music, from, the Ancient Times to the present, has been influenced by musics from foreign countries and Chinese minority nationalities. The mixture of cultures of different regions and countries formed an prosperous culture system, the Han Culture. The history of Chinese music reflects the cultural exchange between China and her neighboring countries, and between the Han nationalites and minority nationalities.

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Appendix: Chronicle of the Chinese History

Paleolithic Period (1,00,00-10,000 B.C.)

Neolithic Age (10,000-7,000 B.C.)

Dynasties: xia (21* -16″. Century B.C.); Shang (Yin, 16″ -11″ Century B.C.)

Western Zhou (1,100-771 B.C.); Eastern Zhou (770-221B.C., including the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period); Qin (221-206 B.C.); Western Han (206 B.C.-25 A.D.); Eastern Han (25-220 A.D.); Gin (265-420); Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589); Sui (581-618); Tang (618-907); Five Dynasties (907-960); Northern Song (960-1127); Southern Song (1127-1279); Yuan (1271-1368); Ming (1368-1644); Qing (1644-1911).